Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and Reactive Nitrogen Species are now understood to be regulated by oxidative stress (RNS). Its involvement is crucial for the control of vital cellular processes, particularly those implicated in excitotoxicity such as ion transport, calcium mobilisation, and the activation of the apoptotic programme in neurons, astrocytes, and microglia. The two main causes of neuronal death are excitotoxicity and apoptosis. In apoptosis, mitochondria play a critical function. The mitochondria are the source of numerous apoptotic pathways. The majority of ROS, most notably superoxide anion, are created by the respiratory chain of mitochondria, which is also the source of cellular energy, i.e. ATP synthesis. A last pathogenic process in ageing and neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's Disease (AD), Parkinson's Disease (PD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is mitochondrial malfunction, which includes cell energy impairment, apoptosis, and excessive ROS generation. An important role is played by nitric oxide (NO), an RNS that can be generated in the brain by three different isoforms of NO-synthase. Our understanding of the pathobiology of sporadic forms of neurodegenerative disorders or of brain ageing has advanced as a result of studies on the genetics of inherited forms of neurodegenerative diseases, including ALS, AD, and PD. Oxidative stress, often known as ROS and RNS, is not the cause of neuronal death. It takes a complex series of actions for neurons to die.

Glial cells come in a variety of forms, including oligodendrocytes, microglia, and astrocytes. For a very long time, it was believed that glial cells solely offered structural support to maintain the metabolism of and preserve neurons. However glial cells, particularly astrocytes, have more complex neuron-like functions. In the neurological system, microglia’s are comparable to monocytes and macrophages. Although important molecules like glucose and the majority of lipid soluble molecules can still pass through, the endothelium of the tiny blood arteries in the brain is substantially less permeable to molecules than other vascular endothelia. This so-called Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) prevents a large number of other chemicals from entering the brain. Additionally, BBB keeps circulating phagocytes out of the healthy brain. The majority of ROS, most notably the first ROS created, superoxide anion in human tissues, are formed by the respiratory chain of mitochondria. Some amount of the O2 absorbed under physiological O2 levels is transformed to ROS. Nitric oxide (NO), a reactive nitrogen species, is another factor (RNS). This gaseous free radical is a vital biological messenger that is extremely diffusible and has a significant impact on the CNS's function. Neuronal NO synthase, inducible NO synthase, which is produced in extremely high numbers by activated microglia, and endothelial NO synthase are the three isoforms responsible for NO synthesis.

Apoptotic cell death, commonly referred to as programmed cell death, predominates in chronic neurodegenerative disorders. In the biochemical cascade known as apoptosis, proteases are activated, some of which promote a programme of cell suicide while others degrade components needed for cell survival. The family forms of Parkinson's disease are extremely uncommon, Lewy bodies which are large cytoplasmic inclusions, are the disease's pathological hallmark. They are primarily seen in the substantia nigra's melanin-containing neurons, and they include-syncline clumps. HD is a highly penetrant autosomal dominant condition. An elongated huntingtin protein is produced by the mutant gene's enhanced GAG repeat count.

Integrative Neuroscience Research Journal is peer reviewed that focuses on the topics include Neurological research, Neurophysiology, Cognitive neurological research, Molecular behavioural, Developmental, Mathematical and computational research related to neuroscience.

Authors can submit their manuscripts as an email attachment to integrativebiology@globalannualmeet.com

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Integrative Neuroscience Research