Introduction

Nanotechnology increasingly plays a significant role in vaccine development. As vaccine development orientates toward less immunogenic “minimalist” compositions, formulations that boost antigen effectiveness are increasingly needed. The use of nanoparticles in vaccine formulations allows not only improved antigen stability and immunogenicity, but also targeted delivery and slow release. A number of nanoparticle vaccines varying in composition, size, shape, and surface properties have been approved for human use and the number of candidates is increasing.

Why to develop nanoparticle-based vaccines?

Development of vaccines has made significant effect on controlling the viral infectious disease burden in both humans and animals. However, there are still many diseases for which either we do not have vaccines or need substantial improvements over existing ones. In the past few decades, nanoparticles (NPs)-based technologies have elicited prominent interests in the development of novel vaccine candidates as they offer multiple benefits over inactivated virus or subunit soluble antigens. NPs-based vaccines (nano vaccines) are prepared either by encapsulating vaccine components within the NPs or by decorating the particle surface with viral antigens. NPs protect antigens from proteolytic degradation, prolong their bioavailability and maintain slow and sustained antigen release. All these properties help in induction of better immune responses compared to soluble antigen vaccines.

Types of nanoparticles vaccines

• Polymeric nanoparticles
• Inorganic nanoparticles
• Liposomes
• Immuno-stimulating complex
• Virus-like particles
• Self-assembled proteins
• Emulsions

Interaction of nano particles with antigens

Typically, there are 4types of interactions between antigen and the nano particle

1. Conjugation
2. Encapsulation
3. Adsorption
4. Mixing

Attachment of antigen has been achieved through simple physical adsorption or more complex methods, such as chemical conjugation or encapsulation. Adsorption of antigen onto a nanoparticle is generally based simply on charge or hydrophobic interaction. Therefore, the interaction between nanoparticle and antigen is relatively weak, which may lead to rapid disassociation of antigen and nanoparticle in vivo. Encapsulation and chemical conjugation provide for stronger interaction between nanoparticle and antigen. In encapsulation, antigens are mixed with nanoparticle precursors during synthesis, resulting in encapsulation of antigen when the precursors particulate into a nanoparticle. Antigen is released only when the nanoparticle has been decomposed in vivo or inside the cell. On the other hand, for chemical conjugation, antigen is chemically cross-linked to the surface of a nanoparticle. Antigen is taken up by the cell together with the nanoparticle and is then released inside the cell.

Mechanism of various nanoparticle vaccine to facilitate immune modulation of APC’S

The below are the steps in mechanism

1. Enhance antigen uptake.
2. Facilitate antigen processing.
3. Induce maturation of DCS.
4. Promote antigen cross-presentation by MHC-I.
5. Induce cytokine production.

Conclusion

A wide variety of nanoparticles have been developed and employed as delivery vehicles or immune potentiators, allowing not only improvement of antigen stability and the enhancement of antigen processing and immunogenicity, but also the targeted delivery and slow release of antigens.

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